Prejudice in Esperanza Rising by Pam Munoz Ryan :: essays research papers

Esperanza Rising Esperanza Rising, by Pam Munoz Ryan is a novel about prejudice. Prejudice is when a superior being looks down on colored, sex, lower classes or different races of people. There were many obstacles in this novel that dealt with racism and mistreatment with Mexicans. Mexican immigrants in the 1930's suffered greatly because of the prejudice in the hearts and minds of the farm owners, lawmakers, and the American people. Business owners were prejudice against Mexican migrant workers. Miguel was very capable of working as a mechanic at the train stations, but ?they will only hire Mexicans to lay tracks and dig ditches, not as mechanics.?(120) Prejudice was also shown when the farm owners said, ?The Mexicans can only swim on Friday afternoons, before they clean the pool on Saturday mornings.?(218) Business owners were very unfair and prejudice to the Mexicans, they treated them like lower class citizens. The laws and government didn?t treat the Mexicans as Americans. Some of the Mexicans that were citizens were protesting for better pay, but immigration officials came to the fields to send them back to Mexico. ?! Americana! ! Americana!? ?yelled one woman and she began to unfold some papers.?(206) The guard ripped the papers up, he didn?t even give her a chance because she was causing problems for the government. Prejudice was shown in the laws in Mexico against women. ?As you know, it is not customary to leave land to women and since Luis was the banker on the loan, Sixto left the land to him.?(30) It was very prejudice that women couldn?t own land and it was sexist. Americans were not their cover page, free and equal, they treated Mexicans as dirty lower class citizens. Isabel?s teacher didn?t choose Queen of the May by the best grades, she chose a pretty blonde American with blue eyes. ?I did not win Queen of May!?(226) Isabel had the best grades, but her teacher was prejudice against Mexicans. Mexicans went out of their way to go to Mr. Yakota?s store because, ?At this market, no one stares at us or treats us like outsiders or calls us ?dirty greasers?.?(187-188) Americans didn?t treat Mexicans like people, they were unfair. I believe prejudice is still going on today in America and all over the world. Some women are owned by men and have to cover all over their skin completely.

Myne Owne Ground Essay

Slavery is an American embarrassment; in present day, African Americans and woman have gained the basic rights given to every American. (3) Slavery existed in every colony in the New World from Canada to the Rio de la Plata. (3) It emerged as a way of buying and selling humans to produce labor needed on the Plantations in the early seventeenth century. However, prior to the full system of slavery, blacks were relatively equal to whites. They were able to own land, make their own money, and live with the same rights as whites. Anthony Johnson is one slave from his era to live a successful life. He started as a slave in Virginia, but later fought to achieve the American Dream. (4) Bought into slavery Anthony seemed to have no control over his future. He was referred to as â€Å" Antonio a Negro† and was purchased to work on the Bennett plantation in the tobacco fields. (8) As every American slave, Anthony had to fight day by day to survive. The poor living conditions with no food or water took a toll on his new life in the Americas. Living each day he was exposed to death, cruelty, and starvation. He seemingly had no opportunity of starting a family because of scarcity of woman; which gave him no choice other than slavery (9). On March 22, 1622, the Indians of Tidewater Virginia attacked Edward Bennett’s tobacco plantation in Virginia (9). The attack on the plantations killed over three hundred and fifty colonists; fifty-two were killed at the plantation (9). Anthony Johnson was one of the twelve lucky survivors. He was fortunate enough to gain his freedom after the attack; all of the people fled their own way. He was able to start his quest to living the American dream, and later gained the name Anthony Johnson. Anthony Johnson got a fresh start in the new world. He was finally able to start a family, he married a woman named Mary. She was the only female to be living at the Bennett’s farm in Warresquioake. They would live together for over forty years and have four children. Bennett later became governor of Northampton. When the Johnsons moved there, Bennett looked after their legal and economic interests. (11) In 1640, Johnson and his family gained an estate (11). Their main source of income came from raising cattle and hogs, which helped with the local economy. Anthony later was able to obtain two hundred and fifty acres of land for his estates; he purchased five headright certificates to help with the land. (11) The land was located on Pungoteague Creek and later had a devastating fire. The fire burned the plantation to the ground and Anthony suffered hard times with the lack of money and resources to start the farm again. He petitioned and gained legal excuse from paying taxes for his wife and two daughters. The reduction of taxes helped Johnson rebuild his plantation. The legal aspects showed that Mary and her two daughters were equal of white women in Northampton County because of the tax system. All black women and men had to pay taxes, whereas only white men who made an income paid. White women were exempt (12). Johnson’s life was like that of the white men during this time. He was able to trade with his white neighbors and buy his own slaves to work for him. Casor, a slave under Johnson, pleaded to Robert Parker, a white man, that Johnson was holding him illegally. He took Casor to his tobacco plantation because he was supposedly a freeman. Johnson was enraged because Casor did not have the indenture he claimed to have. He and his family had a meeting and decided to set John Casor free from his plantation (14). On March 8, 1655, Johnson regained the right of slave Casor by suing Robert Parker. He not only took a white man to court, but he also defeated him, declaring Casor Johnson’s slave for life (15). Anthony was treated with respect; he had the legal documents and his actions were not questioned. Later Johnson would proceed to sell most of his farm and give the rest to his youngest son to help him start a life of his own. Anthony and his wife moved to Maryland as headrights, but they remained free for the rest of their lives. He leased three hundred acres of plantation; he later named the land â€Å"Tonies Vineyard†. (16) After Anthony’s death, Mary renegotiated the lease. She was successful and paid the colony taxes and the annual rent each time. The Johnson family was able to live the remainder of their lives as free equals to the white society. In seventeenth century Northampton, a man’s place in the chain was dependent partly on wealth and race (45). Because of this system, some blacks were able to gain freedom and prosper (68). Many Northampton documents feature names of black men and women who owned their own land. They were able to have families and provide for the welfare (68). Nineteen percent of black men even owned a home. Free blacks on the Eastern Shore significantly had both family and given names (69). These names allowed the family connections to be made. In New Netherland, many black men were free and faced very little discrimination. They were even able to indenture a white female servant for one year (71). The authors are very convincing; I do believe that it was possible for blacks and whites to live together in harmony. In the text it shows how blacks and whites shared legal rights in the seventeenth century, this helped African Americans gained rights in the mid 1900’s. It caused blacks to argue why they couldn’t have freedom when there is evidence of previous peaceful equality (20). Another reason that I believe harmony was possible between blacks and whites are that they could live together as neighbors. In the seventieth century blacks could own land and had the ability to free market. They could buy and sell goods for profit; they could even trade with the white Americans for certain resources needed to be successful. African Americans had the ability to own their own slaves just like white men. Land owning African Americans had to pay taxes just like everyone else owning land. The text shows how African Americans in the seventeenth century had the rights to living free among whites where segregation was not a factor in everyday life. The title of the book Myne Owne Ground means that if you are not allowed to go after liberty and freedom or own land, then freedom isn’t really free. It means in order to be truly equal, you must own your own land. Giving African Americans the freedom to be successful played a huge role in freedoms given today. Without the study of the equal rights given to blacks in the seventieth century, todays freedoms given to all would not have been as accepting in modern day culture.

Descartes’ Religious Journey to find God Essay

In the book Meditations on First Philosophy, Rene’ Descartes states many theories and makes many points on a numerous amount of things. In â€Å"Meditation One: Concerning Those Things That Can Be Called Into Doubt†, I struggled with what Descartes was actually saying in terms of God, did he believe in His existence or didn’t he? However, by â€Å"Meditation Three: Concerning God, That He Exists†, I realized where Descartes stood religiously. I agree with Descartes when he doubts the existence of God in the first two meditations because by the third he has found his own way and proof that God does exist and to believe in Him. Descartes has many things that he considers to be reasonable to doubt. Throughout Descartes’ life he has had a long standing opinion that there is a God who is able to do anything who has actually created Descartes himself. He has believed in God’s existence and God’s creations his whole life. However, in Meditation I he is trying to clear his mind of what he believes in, and consider others beliefs that contradict his. He finds himself questioning, â€Å"How do I know he did not bring it about that there is no Earth at all? No Heavens?† (page 463 Kindle). He acknowledges that he judges others sometimes for their mistakes when they feel they have all the knowledge. Descartes views this is a deception on God’s part. Descartes argues that since God is said to be supremely good, why would he deceive us? Since God did not create me to be deceived all of the time, why would he allow me to be deceived on any occasion? An argument Descartes makes on the do ubt that God exists, is that some people view God as only good and that if He really did exist, no evil things would ever happen. Descartes tries not to oppose the opinions of others in this first meditation. He wants to imagine that he came to be what he was by fate, chance, or a connected chain of events, or some other way besides God creating him. Since being deceived or even making a mistake is seen as an imperfection, he says that the less powerful they see the creator of who we exist, the more probable it will be that we are so imperfect that we are always deceived. Descartes argues that it is not enough to make these observations and that we must take steps in our lives to remind ourselves of what we believe in and keep them in our memories. We need to take them exactly as what they are, although sometimes we may doubt them, so that it is more consonant to believe them rather than to deny them. This takes Descartes into his first meditation; he forces himself to believe that his creator is not a supremely good God, the source of truth, but rather an evil genius who is powerful, intelligent, and clever. H e looks at this evil genius as though he has spent Descartes’ entire life in an attempt to deceive him. He knocks out his seemingly obvious beliefs of heaven, air, earth, colors, shapes, sounds, and all other external things as nothing but hoaxes of his dreams, things that are not real and that do not exist. All of these things he now doubts. He sees himself now as having no hands, eyes, flesh, blood, any senses; they are just false beliefs that he possesses these things. Even though it is no longer in his power that he knows anything true, it is within his power to take care decisively, to withhold his assent to what is false, although more powerful, however clever and smart this evil genius may be, to have any effect on him. Descartes decides to put aside all of his doubts, as though he has discovered all of his doubts to be false, and decides to stay on this course until he knows something for certain, or in fact that he discovers for certain that nothing is certain. In â€Å"Meditation III: Concerning God, That He Exists†, Descartes closes his eyes, stops his ears, turns away his senses from their objects and begins endeavoring a more intimate knowledge of his self. He clarifies that he is a thinking thing, that he doubts, affirms, denies, knows few objects, and is also ignorant of many things. He recognizes that he is able to love, hate, and perceive. Descartes says that he cannot be certain of anything without knowing if God exists and if he can deceive. The idea of God is that he is infinite, independent, all powerful and all knowing, the creator of absolutely everything on this Earth, the creator of the earth, the universe, everything. All of these things are so great that the more carefully Descartes looks studies and considers them, the less persuaded he feels that the idea of them owes its origin to his self alone. This makes him come to his conclusion that God absolutely exists. Descartes feels he had to come from God, because if he came from his self, then he would have no doubts or desires or even thoughts of deception. There is no reason that he should continue to exist every day, or even minute, unless there is a higher power, a stronger force, that preserves him, which would be God. There are many reasons for me, which are different than Descartes reasons that God does in fact exist. Although science has made many breakthroughs trying to doubt God and His existence and all that He has made, they have not necessarily been able to prove he does not exist. The whole entire belief of God relies solely on faith. To have faith is to believe in something that you may not necessarily be able to see. To doubt the existence of God at all, goes against everything that He stands for (even though we all may have doubt in His existence at some point in our lives). Explaining that God exists is nearly impossible, it is something we are taught to believe at a young age (depending on how you were raised of course), without really being explained why or how. Everyone on this earth has their own personal experiences or beliefs about God, and those who believe in God have found Him in their own unique ways. Sometimes to truly believe in something, we have to doubt it at first and take a journey to find our own personal reasons to believe in it, just as Descartes did. Descartes struggled with an explanation of deceit and mistakes. He did not understand why God would allow those things to happen when he is supposed to represent only honesty and good in the world. An explanation that he did not refer to is the devil. The bible explains to us that God is good and the Devil is bad. From personal experiences, I used to struggle with why God would allow such horrible things to happen, why did he let my friends die in car crashes, why does death even exist at all? However, later in life, I discovered that the bad does not necessarily come from God, but it comes from the devil. We are to do our best to avoid hateful acts and to overcome evil, which are works of the devil. God is our creator and our reason for being, but we also have a responsibility and choice of life. He has created a world for us that we have taken advantage of and that has managed to unfortunately gain many evil acts and people. We are supposed to live by the bible, if we do not then God’s plan and course is taken astray. Although He ultimately controls everything, He also allows us to make our own decisions, choose our own paths, learn from our mistakes, and suffer the consequences of those mistakes. It is in our control to determine where we want to go in our lives and where we want to end up in our afterlife. After all, for those of us who believe in God, our being here on earth is only to prepare us for our after life, which hopefully will someday take us to Heaven.

Banking System and Macroeconomic Effects †MyAssignmenthelp

Crypto currencies are forms of digital currency. These currencies use encryption techniques in order to regulate the generation of currency units. Bitcoin is one such crypto currency. Crypto currency is not yet considered as a legal tender in most countries. In fact, at present most of the central banks of the world are putting efforts to ban the trade of crypto currencies. Over the last few years, certain crypto currencies like Bitcoin have garnered immense attention from across different traders owing to their volatile nature. Bitcoin was introduced in the year 2009. The currency is traded without a middleman and with zero bank involvement. It is a peer to peer network through which this currency is traded and transactions are made directly to the parties. Bit coin can be used to trade in goods and services, some use it as a form of investment and some are using it for making payment of businesses (Popper, N., 2015). However, most countries have yet not accepted it as a legal payme nt methodology. It is similar to digital cash transaction as Bitcoin can also be sent through mobile applications and puters. Bitcoin is stored in a digital wallet. These wallets are used as a virtual bank account that allows users to save, send and receive their payments. These wallets are not recognised by the FDIC as methods of paying for goods or services. Bitcoin works as a medium of exchange for goods and services in four countries at the moment which are Japan, Canada, Germany and Holland. Bitcoin is considered to be a form of currency as it can be stored for future investments (Forrester and Solomon, 2013). Bitcoin investment of an individual can also reflect upon the purchasing power of consumer. Consumer have the option to buy the currency, hold it in their accounts or book profits as they deem profitable depending upon the volatility in the market (Bit coin, 2018). Merchants who accept Bit coin as a payment can convert it into standard currency that is in Dollars, Euros etc. Bitcoin has some advantages as it introduces a new payment mechanism; tipping system, automated payment solution, time locked payment management, public asset tracking, low trust escrow services, micro payment channels and more such facilities (Bit coin, 2018). Another advantage of Bitcoin is that its high volatility in the currency market makes it a ‘high risk and high return’ asset. Pegging any currency against the dollar refers to the act of fixing the currency value with respect to the value of Dollar. In other words we can say that the value of US dollar against the other currency is fixed and will not move irrespective of how the market functions. The process of pegging currency with US dollar is often conducted in oil extracting countries as US is the largest importer of oil. GCC economies are the third largest economy. The growth of this economy is highly dependent on selling oil (The Economist, 2018). By pegging the GCC against Dollar has several advantages and disadvantages. Pegging of currency eliminates the risk of currency fluctuations and the risks associated with it. This provides stability to the currency in the international currency market. Pegging encourages the regional currency valuation as the dollar is considered to be the standard currency and by pegging with dollar, currency of other country does not fluctuate (Brooking, 2018). In countries like Saudi Arabia and Venezuela pegging with US dollar has been done in order to protect the countries from the risk of currency fluctuations because US is the major importer for oil. Various countries opt for pegging in order to increase external trade in the country. As external trade increases, the GDP of the country also increases. When pegging of a currency is done to a higher value currency then the value of the country enhances in the public opinion making it an attractive destination to invest. Therefore investment b es easier in that country. This process also protect country from speculation Pegging also gives freedom to set rules and economic policies, interest rates and help to control inflation in the country. Therefore countries must peg their currencies to dollar in order to limit their risks. If a country currency is pegged with the US dollar then the country can take more loan as it will have a more stable environment and economy. Pegging also helps in getting better deals for international loans and interest rates provided the economy’s inflation is in control. The loan taken in the dollar value is harder to pay off because dollar has the high value as pared to the other currency. Therefore in the longer run, pegging would result in rising cost of capital and increased import prices (Espinoza and Prasad, 2010).   The country which pegs it’s currency with the USD has to maintain a high reserve of dollars. It means central bank of that country has to hold a high amount of reserves in US dollars (Financial Times, 2018). Holding of foreign currency reserve (dollar) indulges a cost which adversely affects the economy. Pegging also leads to an increase in inflation. Growth and development of a country is dependent on the performance of dollar. Monetary policies are restricted in every country and are wholly dependent on the performance of the currency to which the currency is pegged. Similarly in the case of US dollar and countries pegged with it, it means that if the value of US dollar falls the currency of other country will also fall and vice versa. Bitcoin, 2018. ‘Bit coin for developers’. [Online]. Available at:   https://Bit coin.org/en/Bit coin-for-developers [ACCESSED ON 30 th march 2018] Bitcoin, 2018. ‘Bit coin for individual’. [Online]. Available at:   https://Bit coin.org/en/Bit coin-for-individuals. [ACCESSED ON 30 th march 2018] Brooking, (2018). ‘Sustaining the GCC currency pegs: The need for collaboration’. [Online]. Available at: https://www.brookings.edu/research/sustaining-the-gcc-currency-pegs-the-need-for-collaboration/. [ACCESSED ON 31 th march 2018] Espinoza, R.A. and Prasad, A., 2010.  Ã¢â‚¬ËœNonperforming loans in the GCC banking system and their macroeconomic effects (No. 10-224)’. International Monetary Fund. Financial Times, 2018. ‘Gulf’s dollar peg makes sense’. [Online]. Available at:   https://www.eiu /industry/article/1725886356/will-the-gulf-co-operation-council-currency-pegs-survive/2017-09-13. [ACCESSED ON 31th march 2018] Forrester, D. and Solomon, M., 2013.  Ã¢â‚¬ËœBitcoin explained: Today's plete guide to tomorrow's currency’. CreateSpace Independent publishing platform. Popper, N., 2015.  Digital gold: Bitcoin and the inside story of the misfits and millionaires trying to reinvent money  (pp. 156-197). New York: Harper. Tanha, H. and Dempsey, M., 2017. Derivatives usage in emerging markets following the GFC: Evidence from the GCC countries.  Emerging Markets Finance and Trade,  53(1), pp.170-179. The Economist, 2018. ‘Financial Services’. [Online]. Available at:   https://www.eiu /industry/article/1725886356/will-the-gulf-co-operation-council-currency-pegs-survive/2017-09-13. [ACCESSED ON 30 th march 2018]. The National, 2018. ‘Why GCC states should ditch the dollar peg and switch to a currency basket’. [Online]. Available at: https://www.thenational.ae/business/economy/why-gcc-states-should-ditch-the-dollar-peg-and-switch-to-a-currency-basket-1.700668. [ACCESSED ON 31 th march 2018]

If industrial robots get cheap enough, they may replace almost all Essay

If industrial robots get cheap enough, they may replace almost all unskilled factory worker in the future. discuss the benefits and costs of this to society - Essay Example There are certain estimations, which indicate that, by year 2025, robots would have taken almost 50 percent of the total jobs in the United States. The impact of industrial robots on employment patterns would vary amongst different industries, and there are reasons to believe that the automotive industry, food services industry and the manufacturing industry would be amongst the ones that would be impacted the most. In these industries, robots would replace as much as 95 percent of the total workers (Skaar & Castillo, pp. 63-64, 2012). These three industries, combined, would replace more than 44 million workers. In fact, calculations also indicate that by the end of 2012, the number of industrial robots, within US alone, would increase to the level of 1.2 million. More importantly, despite the dismissal performance of economy and recessionary pressures, there has been a 20 percent average annual increase in the employment of industrial robots. By the year 2013, there would be one rob ot worker for every 6000 people living on this planet and there are reasons to believe that, within a few decades, the world would have more robots that people (Briggle, et al., pp. 104-106, 2011). Proponents of replacing human workers with robots believe that this would mark a new era in improving the quality of living of people. Life on this planet would become more comfortable, and industries would be able to reduce their costs, drastically, thus allowing consumers as well as industries to gain from the savings (Skaar & Castillo, pp. 63-64, 2012). On the other hand, proponents of these ideas believe that it will only increase the problems in developing and third world countries of the world, which are plagued, already, by problems of high inflation, poverty, and unemployment. In many of these countries, a significant chunk of people is employed in the manufacturing sector, performing

Chapter 8 Reaction Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Chapter 8 Reaction - Essay Example .. It is a very peaceful way to stop the anger of the other parties involved in conflict and can decrease the element of stress, fight and violence involved in usual conflicts. Things I dislike about this chapter The thing I dislike about the chapter is the section where it discusses about the priority conflict. This conflict where moral judgment is given attention is not taken by me as an ideal way to handle a situation. For example it is shown that in a medical emergency where injured old aged are given priority rather than people with serious injury is not an acceptable method of handling conflict. This cannot be comprehended as in some cases; an individual might be in a fatal situation and if an old person is treated just because of his age, cannot be considered a justifying act. Also in the section for priority conflict, it is explained that, borrowing is considered as bad concept in Germany, which is hard to understand. Borrowing is not a bad concept, as human being come across problems at some point of their life, they definitely demand help from others undoubtedly. So, if one take financial help from government or family members it is not a sin or a morality issue. What I learned about the chapter This chapter is all about methods to deal with conflict and how people in different cultural backgrounds practice various approaches to handle conflicts they encounter in their day to day life. It is very interesting and surprising to know that there are so many ways to control conflict like accommodating, avoiding, competing and collaborating. It is even more interesting to know that Japanese follow a very non aggressive way of avoiding conflicts in comparison with American who follow a competing method. I believe that being tactful about conflicts is the main message of this chapter. The chapter helped in learning that people in the West look in for their benefits when helping out people, and does not just arrive in a cultural scene just for the benefit of t he other party. In the chapter it is also shown that people of different culture around the world have their own beliefs and practices when it comes to conflict management. Some practice outrageous and open- minded method, whereas other takes calm and peaceful tactics to solve a raging situation. It also allowed me to learn that in conflict there are various branches to deal with like as intergroop conflicts, interpersonal conflict and inter cultural conflicts. In all these conflicts the main issue is considering the priorities of the parties involved in the conflict and gives justice to people who support more of a moral ground. What 5 things I learned about myself from this chapter 1) Patience: I believe during conflict it is necessary to have patience, which I lack and need to be cultivated to deal with conflicts in a better way. If other party gets violent in a conflict my peacefulness can suppress the heat of the conflict to a great level. The main factor which makes a conflict worse is when two parties or many parties violently argue or shout during a conflict. In brief, avoiding is the best approach in regard to conflicts even though it is difficult to practice. 2)Morality: I learnt that my morality can help me in dealing with conflicts as I give myself less chance to arouse frightful situation. Being moral, an individual can be more humble, understanding and truthful which gives less chance to fights

International Arbitration Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

International Arbitration - Dissertation Example The Second Chapter deals with the research methodology adopted in this work. A doctrinal approach was followed in this research work. The Third chapter provides a Literature Review. In this chapter, many case studies were included to examine the effectiveness of investment arbitration. Moreover, scholarly reports and extant literature on the topic were scrutinised. The Fourth Chapter deals with a discussion of the findings and the fifth chapter deals with conclusions. Ambiguity in the interpretation of the treaty provisions, lack of expertise in ministries in case of developing countries, bias on the part of the arbitrator are some of the reasons identified for the lack of success of investment arbitration. Shortcomings with International Investment Arbitration Chapter 1 – Introduction Investment treaty arbitration is significantly different from other types of arbitration. In investment arbitration, the arbitrator is empowered to make decisions that are final. This type of ar bitration brings to the fore a number of issues relating to impartiality and independence. In the other types of arbitration, the final decision is taken by the court.1 As is well known, the courts enjoy independence from private and state power. Such independence is promoted by providing judges with a secure tenure, precluding outside remuneration and the adoption of an objective procedure of assigning cases. These factors are conspicuous by their absence in investment arbitration. As a consequence, it is not uncommon for these arbitral awards to be influenced by inappropriate factors. 2 These safeguards do not find a place in investment treaty arbitration. A class of inappropriate influences is that related to the career and financial interests of arbitrators. These arbitrators do not have secure tenure and engage in remunerative activities that are external to their role as adjudicators. 3 The independence and impartiality of the investment arbitral process is crucially dependent on the existence of openness. In the absence of transparency, it become difficult if not impossible to confirm the integrity and fairness of the decision making process. 4 Arbitrations related to investment treaties emerge from bilateral and multilateral treaties formed between countries to promote foreign investment. In general, such treaties incorporate provisions for settling disputes between a private foreign investor and the host nation by arbitration, under public international law. 5 Contemporary international arbitration is widely believed to have commenced with the Jay Treaty of 1974. This treaty was entered into by the US and Great Britain. Private international arbitration had not developed during that epoch and there was a predominance of international arbitral commissions.6 Subsequently there was an increase in instances of private international commercial arbitration. However, this system of arbitration has not yet developed to any significant extent. Wider acceptance of this method of dispute resolution could render it more transparent. Such arbitration views confidentiality as a significant feature of the dispute resolution. Accordingly, if the parties are in favour of keeping their dispute resolution confidential, then they have to incorporate relevant clauses in their arbitration contract. 7 Another method of ensuring confidentiality is to make a reference in